Day 2 of bootcamp was much more hands-on. The focus shifted toward learning how research is actually done step by step, especially when it comes to following protocols and understanding the systems scientists use to study drugs and disease.
The protocol we practiced follwoing was to make a pH buffer. However, instead of using real chemicals, we worked with different colored water. That made it easier to focus on techniques and proper lab etiquette without worrying about risk or results. One of the main goals was to practice labeling, which is one of the most important things in the lab. ALWAYS label everything! We also practiced using pasteur pipettes and following the protocol exactly. We reread the instructions multiple times to make sure we did not miss anything. We stopped to label every tube.
Drug Discovery Takes Time
After the protocol exercise, we zoomed out and talked about drug discovery as a whole. From the earliest idea to FDA approval, the process takes around thirteen years. That includes discovery, testing, failures, revisions, and regulatory review.
A lot of that time is spent testing, especially before a drug ever reaches human trials. That is where animal models come in.
Animal models are used to study diseases, test treatments, and understand biological processes in ways that cell cultures or computer models cannot fully capture.
Common models include mice and rats, fruit flies like drosophila, nematodes such as C. elegans, frogs, rabbits, pigs, and non human primates. Each model is chosen for a reason. Some are genetically similar to humans. Others have short lifespans or simple nervous systems that make patterns easier to study.
All animals used in research are housed in vivariums, which are controlled environments designed to keep them healthy and reduce stress.
Ethics was a major part of this discussion. Research involving animals follows the 3 R’s principle.
Replacement encourages the use of non animal alternatives whenever possible, such as cell culture or computer models.
Reduction focuses on using the smallest number of animals necessary to get reliable data.
Refinement involves modifying procedures to minimize pain and distress.
Even with these principles, in vivo research is still required. Before FDA approval, a drug must be tested in at least two living systems. This is because living organisms respond in complex ways that cannot be fully predicted otherwise.
Common Animal Models and Tests
Mice and rats are the most commonly used animals in biomedical research. About ninety percent of their DNA is shared with humans, which makes them useful for studying disease mechanisms. Some common behavioral tests were mentioned, including the Rotarod Test, the Open Field Test, and the Y Maze Test. These are used to assess balance, movement, memory, and anxiety related behavior. Certain strains are used frequently:
C57BL/6 mice are very common and often used in genetic research due to their strong immune response and long lifespan.
BALB/c mice are another widely used strain.
Sprague Dawley rats are the most common rat model.
RNU nude rats lack a thymus and do not have T cells, making them useful for immune related research.
Other models include fruit flies, which are commonly used in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s research, and C. elegans worms, which have a fully mapped nervous system and transparent bodies.
Xenopus laevis, also known as the African clawed frog, is used in developmental biology. Rabbits are preferred in ophthalmologic research because their eyes are very similar to human eyes. Pigs are used because many of their organ systems closely resemble those of humans. Non human primates share between ninety and ninety eight percent of their DNA with humans.
We then moved into cell culture, which is a major alternative to animal research. Cell culture involves removing cells from plants or animals and growing them in an artificial environment that supports survival and growth. This type of work is done in vitro.
There are different types of cell lines. Immortalized cell lines can grow indefinitely and often come from tumors. HeLa cells, which originated from cervical cancer, are a well known example. Primary or finite cell lines are taken directly from tissues and can only divide a limited number of times. Stem cells are groups of identical cells that can be grown indefinitely and later differentiated. Cells can also be classified as adherent or nonadherent depending on whether they attach to the culture surface.
A cell culture lab is usually in a dedicated aseptic space to prevent any possible sources of contamination. Necessary equipment includes a laminar flow hood and CO2 incubator. Cleanliness is super important! Proper PPE is required at all times. Everything that enters the hood must be sprayed with seventy percent ethanol. Cells need to be handled carefully and monitored regularly.
The media used in cell culture provides essential nutrients and maintains suitable conditions for cell survival. Over time, media changes color. Old media often appears yellow or orange, which signals that it needs to be replaced.
See you tomorrow!
